Journal of Research in Applied Chemistry

Authors:- Jyoti Pandey

Abstract:- Quinoline is a white hygroscopic liquid with a strong odour that darkens with age. It is soluble in alcohol, ether, benzene, and carbon disulfide, but not in water. Quinoline is a low-quality tertiary base. It produces salts in acids and has reactions comparable to benzene and pyridine, as well as the ability to engage in both electrophilic and nucleophilic substitution (HSDB), Quinoline is a heterocyclic aromatic chemical molecule that is also known as 1-azanaphthalene, 1-benzazine, or benzo[b]pyridine. It has the chemical formula C9H7N. Quinoline structure has been known since 1908, and comprehensive synthesis by Woodward and Doe ring in 1945 verified it. It served as the structural basis for the development of various anti-malarial quinoline derivatives. It was initially separated from coal tar bases by Runge in 1834, and since then, coal tar has been the primary source of commercial quinoline; when an aged sample is exposed to light, it becomes yellow and then brown.

Keywords:- Quino Line, Coal Tar, Derivatives, Pharmaceutical, Heterocyclic.

Author:- Dr. Jyotsna Lal

Abstract:- Heavy  metals Ni ,  As  , Hg , Pb , Cd   , Cu, , Zn, Cr act  as  effective  enzymes inhibitors  . The virons or carcinogenic metals with their tendency for chelation are associated with vitamins; protein and nucleic acid .These metals ions may replace the (ZnII, MgII ) from the normal enzyme system or nucleic acid and may alter the structure and function of genetic material resulting in the formation of cancer.  The author wishes to highlight phytoremediation and the medicinal benefits of water hyacinth an aquatic weed, along with synthesis of liquid organic fertilizer from Eichhorniacrassipes. Phytoremediation of nickel, copper, cadmium, zinc by Salviniamolesta, Spirodelapolyrhiza ,Eichhorniacrassipes from water offer good  alternatives. Metal   accumulation  by  microorganisms and algae environmental  scientists and engineers try  to utilize  this property  of   bio accumulation  for  monitoring   metal  pollution as  well  as   removal \ recovery  of   property  of   bio accumulation  for    metals  from   natural  and   waste waters .

Keywords:- Eichhorniacrassipes, Salviniamolesta, Spirodelapolyrhiza, ZnII, MgII.

Authors:- Jyotsna Lal

Abstract:- According to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and WHO, the permissible limit of copper in drinking water is 1.3 and 2.0 mg dm3, respectively [1]. However, the divalent copper (Cu2+) is toxic and carcinogenic when consumed in excess through ingestion. The excessive Cu2+ consumption leads to its deposition in liver and subsequent vomiting, headache, nausea, respiratory problems, abdominal pain, liver and kidney failure and finally gastrointestinal bleeding [6] there has been an increasing research into finding low-cost adsorbents for the removal of heavy metals from wastewaters. Agricultural by-products which have been studied for this purpose include peat, wood, pine bark, banana pith, cotton seed hulls, peanut shells, hazel nut shell, rice husk, saw dust, wool, orange peel, compost, maize cobs and guava leaves Removal of copper from water by bio sorption, using algal waste from agar extraction, either directly or as a composite material and dead biomass of algae Gelidium can be a promising process. Large quantities of algal waste are generated and can be reused before final disposal. The present study demonstrated the phytoremediation potential of water hyacinth ＂Eichhornia  crassipes .

Keywords:- Excess through ingestion, deposition in liver and subsequent, Agricultural by-products, present study demonstrated.

Author: Dr. S. Karthikeyan

Abstract: Applied chemistry plays a foundational role in biomedical engineering by enabling the design, development, and optimization of materials, devices, and systems used in healthcare. From biomaterials and drug delivery systems to diagnostic tools and tissue engineering scaffolds, chemical principles guide innovation at the interface of medicine and engineering. This paper explores the significance of applied chemistry in biomedical engineering, highlighting core chemical concepts, material synthesis, surface chemistry, biochemical interactions, and emerging applications. The integration of chemistry with biology and engineering has led to significant advancements in medical devices, regenerative medicine, biosensors, and personalized healthcare solutions. The paper also discusses current challenges and future prospects of applied chemistry-driven biomedical technologies.

KEYWORDS Applied Chemistry, Biomedical Engineering, Biomaterials, Drug Delivery Systems, Tissue Engineering, Biosensors

Authors:- Abha Pandey, Mridul Goswami

Abstract:- A detergent composition is classified according to the raw chemicals used, which include surfactants, builders, bleaching agents, enzymes, and minors that remove dirt, stains, and filth from surfaces or fabrics while also providing a pleasant feel and odour. The history, composition, kinds, mechanism, how laundry detergents operate, environmental implications, and usage of laundry detergents are all covered in this review study. This page also discusses the usage of enzymes, particularly lipases, as detergents, as well as the many types of lipase-containing detergents on the market. This paper discusses the use of microbial lipases in detergents, which can help to lessen the environmental impact of detergent products because the chemicals used in traditional detergents are biodegradable, non-toxic, and leave no unwanted residues. Other enzymes, in addition to lipases, are commonly utilised in domestic cleaning goods, laundry, medicine, and agriculture.

Keywords:- Detergent, Enzymes, Lipase, Green Chemistry, Medicine.

Authors:- Dr. Neena Singhal, Hetal Joshi

Abstract:- The photocatalytic activity of ZnFe₂O₄ was studied by photocatalytically degrading toluidine blue dye in visible light. Precipitation was used to create ZnFe₂O₄. A 200 W tungsten lamp was used to illuminate the dye solution. The dye's degradation rate was determined by measuring its absorbance at 630 nm at regular intervals. The rate of deterioration was discovered to be affected by many characteristics such as pH, dye concentration, semiconductor quantity, and light intensity.The optimum rate was observed at pH = 9.5; toluidine blue  2.10 x 10^-5 zinc ferrite = 0.06 g and light intensity = 60.0 mWcm^-2. The rate constant for a typical run was observed as 2.67 x 10^-4  sec^-1.. A preliminary process for the photocatalytic degradation of toluidine blue in the presence of zinc ferrite has been proposed, employing superoxide anion radical as the active oxidising species.

Keywords:- Photocatalyst, Ternary oxide, Toluidine blue, Zinc ferrite.

Authors:- Nikul Solanki, Priyansh Shah, Debanjana Mukherjee

Abstract:-  Paul Anastasin coined the term "green chemistry" in 1991. Green Chemistry's multidisciplinary nature is recognized globally as a path to the development of chemical products and processes with lower environmental impact. Green chemistry and sustainability have had a significant impact on how industry wants to be perceived. To encourage the adoption of green and sustainable methodologies in the chemical and chemical-using industries, green chemistry must be demonstrated in educational and training materials in order to influence and inspire the next generation of scientists. In this paper, we look at some of the most important aspects of successful graduate green chemistry courses, as well as how the skills gained from such studies can lead to careers in a wide range of chemistry-related industries.

Keywords:- Manufacturing, Challenges, Industries, Green solvent Researches, Atom, economy, Reduce, Analytical chemistr, Supercritical fluids.

Author: Prema.K.H

Abstract: Activated carbon (AC) is an industrially important adsorbent as it is an efficient adsorbent for dyes and metal salts. It can be used for water purification. Water remediation is very important as it may be easily contaminated with various industrial wastes. A major contaminant of water body is the dye chemicals from coir industry. A lot of studies have been conducted to separate the dye chemicals from the effluent of different industries. Activated carbon can be effectively used for the effluent treatment and other such water bodies. Adsorption properties of AC encourage researchers to use AC in almost every field of chemistry, basically due to its simplicity of design and operation. In this particular study a sol-gel based synthesis of AC from a carbon source is done using ethylene glycol as solvent. Con. Sulphuric acid is used as dehydrating agent. Four different samples are prepared in different condition and methylene blue adsorption is done and analyzed by spectroscopic method. Characterization and morphology of the sample is done by XRD, and SEM. Chemical activation is also done by treating with calcium chloride solution and verified.

Keywords: Water pollution, Adsorption, Activated charcoal, Methylene blue 

Authors: Ashok Kulkarni¹, Pooja Joshi²

Abstract: Single-atom catalysts (SACs) have emerged as a new frontier in heterogeneous catalysis and are attracting strong attention for clean energy applications. In SACs, isolated metal atoms are anchored on suitable supports, combining the advantages of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis. The unique electronic structure, maximum atom utilization, and tunable coordination environment make SACs promising for energy-related reactions such as hydrogen evolution, oxygen reduction, oxygen evolution, CO₂ reduction, and nitrogen fixation. This review discusses the fundamental concepts of single-atom catalysis, synthesis strategies, characterization techniques, and structure–performance relationships. Recent advances in SACs for clean energy conversion and storage are critically analyzed, highlighting both achievements and limitations. Challenges related to stability, scalability, and realistic operating conditions are also discussed. Finally, future perspectives on the rational design of SACs for sustainable energy technologies are provided. Overall, single-atom catalysis offers a viable pathway toward high efficiency and low-cost catalysts for next-generation clean energy systems.

Keywords: Single-atom catalysts, clean energy, electrocatalysis, hydrogen evolution, CO₂ reduction, sustainable catalysis

Authors: Prajwal R, Madhunandan G.R, Pranava Athreya, Vaishnavi V, Lavanya L

Abstract: The sugars like Glucose, Fructose, and Maltose are common ingredients of all energy drinks and energy foods available in the market. It is quantified by DNSA method by using colorimeter and UV-Visible spectrophotometer and the results are compared with the content charts on the products. The spectral data is used to quantify the reducing sugars in the selected products of energy drinks and energy foods. The amount of sugar or carbohydrate in a soft drink/Energy food item will determined using a colorimetric method. The rapid measurement using UV-Vis Spectrophotometer allows for the collection of accurate data from the time-dependent reactions. The Calibration curve will be automatically calculated using the Quantification mode of the UV-Visible spectroscopy. The DNSA method helps to determine amount of reducing sugar in the selected samples of commercially available products and it is carried out by colorimetric method and to achieve further accuracy the UV-Visible spectroscopy is employed. The obtained results of sugar amounts in the samples will be used for the comparison with the company’s product data provided on the product pack. This is correlated with the recommendations given by Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)and Conclusions are drawn. The findings of the project will be reported to the competent authority for the authentication and the work can be extended as a minor research project with specific objectives.

Keywords:  DNSA, Red Bull, Appy Fizz, Maaza, Kissan Ketchup, Kissan Jam, Maggi Masala Magic.

Authors: Vedha A, Kulandai Therese S

Abstract: The aim of study was investigate the phytochemichal screening and FT-IR studies of water, ethyl acetate and ether extract from shade dry leaves and fresh bark and buds of DYSIS LUTESCENS. The phytochemical screening for extracted from dry leaves and fresh bark and buds of Dypsis lutescens was tested and shown positive result for saponins and lactone components. However, the extract of dry leaves and fresh bark and buds not show the positive result for tannins, protein, carbohydrate and anthocyanins components.

Keywords: Dypsis Lutescens, Phytochemicals, Leaf, Bark, Bud

 

Author: Sheela Gopal M

Abstract: A novel and simple method for the synthesis of azacycl[3.2.2]azine and its derivatives is carried out with 2-phenyl-imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine  and DMAD  under microwave conditions in synthetically useful yields. The product 2-phenyl azacycl[3.2.2]azine  was obtained in low yield. By adopting the same procedure the different 4-substituted nitro, chloro, methyl, bromo and fluoro derivatives have been synthesised.

Keywords: Azacycl[3.2.2]azine, DMAD, Microwave, 2-phenyl-imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine

Authors: Anbarasi K, Manoranjitham A

Abstract: Corrosion is a natural process which causes damage to the substance mainly to metals. There are various types of inhibitors in which mainly organic inhibitors are used but are toxic to the environment, alternatively the uses of green inhibitor provides a safe and are non- toxic to the environment.  The aim of present work investigates the anticorrosion behavior of Centella asiatica leaves (LCA) extract on mild steel in 1N HCl medium .The effect of 1N HCl on the inhibition efficiency of LCA extract was tested at room temperature and at different inhibitor concentrations. The weight loss technique was carried out for 1, 3, 5,7,24 hours which revealed that the rate of corrosion decreases and inhibition efficiency increases with increase in immersion time. FT-IR and SEM analysis were also done which confirmed the formation of protective layer on the mild steel surfaces.

Keyword: Corrosion inhibitor, Acid medium, Corrosion rate, Mild steel, FT-IR, SEM

Authors: Aniruddh. Kulkarni¹, Savita S. Deshpande², Rajesh. tripathi³, Mukul Srharma4, Sanjay Arora5

Abstract: The global chemical industry is undergoing a significant transformation driven by the urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, minimize dependence on fossil resources, and adopt circular manufacturing practices. Precision fermentation has emerged as a promising and versatile platform for the sustainable production of chemicals, fuels, and materials. Unlike traditional fermentation, precision fermentation employs genetically engineered microorganisms to produce specific target molecules with high selectivity and yield. This approach enables the conversion of renewable feedstocks such as sugars, agricultural residues, and even waste carbon into value-added chemicals under mild operating conditions. In recent years, advances in metabolic engineering, synthetic biology, and bioprocess optimization have expanded the scope of precision fermentation beyond pharmaceuticals and food ingredients into bulk and specialty chemicals. This review discusses the fundamental principles of precision fermentation, microbial host selection, metabolic pathway engineering, and downstream processing strategies. Emphasis is placed on its application in producing organic acids, alcohols, biopolymers, and platform chemicals relevant to sustainable chemical manufacturing. Economic, environmental, and scalability challenges are critically analyzed, along with emerging trends such as AI-assisted strain design and integration with renewable energy systems. Overall, precision fermentation represents a key enabling technology for achieving a low-carbon and resilient chemical industry.

Keywords: Precision fermentation; sustainable chemistry; metabolic engineering; bio-based chemicals; green manufacturing; industrial biotechnology

Author: J. Eugin Shaji

Abstract: The natural radioactivity concentration of radionuclides such as ²²⁶Ra, ²²⁸Th, ²³⁸U and ⁴⁰K were determined in vegetables cultivated in a high background radiation area, Midalam, situated in south India. The measurements were carried out using a 3†x 3†NaI gamma spectrometry. The gross a, b and ²²⁶Ra, ²²⁸Th, ²³⁸U and ⁴⁰K activities of soil and vegetable samples were also studied, collecting samples at 10 sampling points around Midalam. Maximum activity was found in Carica papaya (Papaya) and Moringa oleifera (drum stick) compared to the other vegetable samples. The activity concentration and the relative doses were found below the permissible limits.

Keywords: Radioactivity, HBRA, Midalam, Transfer factor, Ingestion dose.

Author:-Dr Jyotsna Lal

Abstract:-Tobacco smoking is a known risk factor for many respiratory infections and increases the severity of respiratory diseases. A review of studies by public health experts convened by WHO on 29 April 2020 found that smokers are more likely to develop severe disease with COVID-19, compared to non-smokers.COVID-19 is an infectious disease that primarily attacks the lungs. Smoking impairs lung function making it harder for the body to fight off corona viruses and other diseases. Tobacco is also a major risk factor for noncommunicable diseases like cardiovascular disease, cancer, respiratory disease and diabetes which put people with these conditions at higher risk for developing severe illness when affected by COVID-19. Available research suggests that smokers are at higher risk of developing severe disease and death. WHO is constantly evaluating new research, including research that examines the link between tobacco use, nicotine use, and COVID-19. WHO urges researchers, scientists and the media to be cautious about amplifying unproven claims that tobacco or nicotine could reduce the risk of COVID-19. There is currently insufficient information to confirm any link between tobacco or nicotine in the prevention or treatment of COVID-19.

Authors: Nethala Lalitha Kumari, Dandabattina Suneel Kumar, Duvvuri Suryakala

Abstract: Biomass-derived activated porous carbon materials are supreme supercapacitor electrode resources because of their low cost, eco-friendliness, and plentiful raw materials source. Here, anionic surfactant sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) is intercalated with rice straw sheets to avert the restacking and enhance the interlayer distance by the Coulomb force of interaction. A schematic analysis of the morphology and the electrical performances of these EDLC cells are conducted. The carbon material is analyzed through SEM, FTIR, BET and XRD and made up into electrodes to conduct constant current charge-discharge, cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy investigations. The studies are conducted in 3.0 M KOH electrolyte. The specific capacitance is observed from charge-discharge experiments to be 139.03 F/g for activated porous nanomaterials prepared at 500ºC. Values obtained indicate an approach brazen in fabricating a green electrode for industrial applications. It is observed that the energy density of the cells is enhanced to 35.9 Wh/kg at 1 A/g, telling that the enlarged interlayer distance could increase the accessible surface area, and with better interlayer distance, the energy density and capacitance of the cells are enhanced. The presence of surfactants can improve the activated rice straw surfaces' wettability and activate its occurrence as a supercapacitor electrode.

Author: Ganesh Sutar 

Abstract: The water being an important commodity is required to be in pure form, hence it is important to analyses various test of water such as PH value, hardness, chloride, sulfate, fluoride content, cyanide, chromium, lead, arsenic, zinc, alkalinity, turbidity  Dissolved oxygen, chemical oxygen demand, BOD, etc. The value of these parameters should be within the range of standard value (Indian standard or WHO). The most common source of natural water is a river, lake, and underground water. The source of water gets contaminated by domestic field, industrial, agricultural practices. The contaminated water flowing in ditches a term as Sewage.  It consists of about 99.9% water and 0.1% of pollutants. The domestic sewage includes human and household wastewater, municipal wastewater etc. In the form of suspended, dissolved, and colloidal states. These wastes are directly discharged into freshwater which causes the pollution of water and land. The organic impurities in sewage help bacteria grow very fast.it leads to a decrease in the amount of dissolved oxygen in water, so aquatic animals and plants cannot survive. Sewage water is a carrier and transports a myriad of diseases and illnesses. According to WHO, about 2.2 million people die each year from diarrhea diseases. There are different characteristics of sewage such as physical, chemical, and biological, which helps to select proper the sewage treatment process. Treatment of sewage water is not only important for human health but to keep our environment clean and healthy.  

Authors: Undi Sai Nagendra Prasadu, G Uma Devi (Late)

Abstract: The area of East Godavari district in Andhra Pradesh, India, is selected to discuss the impact of seasonal variation of groundwater quality on human health, where agriculture is the main livelihood of rural people. Groundwater is one of the main sources for irrigation and drinking. Groundwater samples collected seasonally, pre- and post-monsoons, during the years 2013-2014 and 2014-2015. Forty samples were collected from five areas from different Ground Water sources. The selected five areas are Rajahmundry, Ramachandrapuram, Kakinada, Peddapuram and Amalapuram in East Godavari District for the investigation because these areas are growing vastly with increasing in population as well as many numbers of Industries.

Authors: Vaishali Agme Ghodke, Rupali N.Agme

Abstract: The present study is focused on the development and formulation of organic glass cleaner based upon the literature survey of various chemicals possessing cleaning activity. The proposed product plays a significant role in cleaning the surface of glass, versatile and effective cleaning product. Nowadays, many commercial products are available in the market, but sometimes it needs to satisfy certain requirements like efficiency, non-hazardous and cost-efficient. Hence by considering the fact, the organic glass cleaner spray is synthesized from water, glaxicol paste, dry vinegar, thinners, and surface-active compounds. This product removes stains and dust effectively and keeps the glass surface clean.

 

Authors: Sivakala S., Asha S., Kumar, Suja S., Sreeraj S.

Abstract: The present work encompasses the development of a novel ternary Nanohybrid composite (PANIMMO) of the mixed metal oxide of Nickel and Zinc (MMO) with polyaniline (PANI) using a green technique. The PANIMMO composite acts as a superior electrode material for supercapacitors. Microwave-assisted hydrothermal annealing method was used for preparing MMO, and then in-situ polymerization of aniline to get PANIMMO. FTIR, TGA, and SEM confirmed the formation of the composite. HRTEM analysis revealed the wrapping of PANI nanofibres on MMO. This enfolding augments the electrochemical behaviour of the nanocomposite. The composite exhibited excellent conductivity of 2 S/cm and acts as an electrode material for super capacitors. The electrochemical performances of the composite electrode can be due to the synergistic impact of distinct components. This facile strategy expected to revolutionize sustainable energy storage systems for affordable and efficient microelectronic devices.

Authors: Dr. A. Samsath Begum, Dr. A. Jamal Abdul Nasser, Dr. S.Syed Abuthahir, Dr. Susai Rajendran, Dr. Abdulhameed Al-Hashem

Abstract: The influence of aqueous extract Gloriosa superba leaf towards the corrosion on mild steel in 1.0M HCl has been investigated by weight loss method, polarization and impedance technique. The protective film adsorbed on the metal surface is confirmed by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The results found shows that Gloriosa superba is a good inhibitor for mild steel in this medium. The inhibition efficiency of the compound was found to differ with the concentration of the inhibitor (2% to 10 % v/v), immersion time 2hr and temperature 303-333K.The inhibition efficiency was found high at (10% v/v) concentration of the inhibitor for 2hours (94.7%). Potentiodynamic polarizations were confirmed that the studied inhibitor behaves as a mixed type inhibitor.

Authors: Srijita Basumallick

Abstract: The stock of fossil fuels like coal, petrol, and diesel are rapidly exhausted and therefore, technology based on solar energy harnessing has received as an effective alternative energy source which can replace fossil fuels. Among many different types of solar energy conversion devices, photo-galvanic and dye sensitive solar cells are more promising. Dye based devices are simple and cost effective. Earlier researchers in the development of photo-galvanic cells use dye in solutions as a result the photo-excited dye often return back to the ground state without effective electron transfer reaction. In natural photo synthetic process, the excited pigment chlorophyll exhibits efficient electron transfer process by transporting solar energy. Photo-galvanic cell is one of the conventional devices for tapping solar energy.   Unlike conventional  methylene blue (MB) – EDTA ( ethylene di-amine tetra-acetic acid) , I2/ I3- photo-galvanic cell , here we report for the first time,   replacement of Pt /I2/ I3- cathode  by a redox conducting polymer, polyaniline deposited on a steel plate and designated as  Steel/ PANI- NO3-  cathode (PANI= poly ine). A photo galvanic cell comprising of Pt/methylene blue EDTA solution/ SteelPANI-NO3 exhibits better photo-chemical performances compared to cell with conventional cathode.

 

Authors: Abhilasha Sharma1, Ashutosh Rana2, Kuldeep Bishth3

Abstract:  Porous crystalline materials have emerged as one of the most promising classes of functional solids for gas storage and separation applications. Among them, metal organic frameworks (MOFs) and covalent organic frameworks (COFs) have attracted tremendous attention due to their exceptionally high surface areas, tunable pore sizes, and chemical modularity. These materials provide unprecedented control over structure–property relationships, enabling selective adsorption and efficient separation of gases such as hydrogen, methane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and light hydrocarbons. This review summarizes recent progress in the design, synthesis, and application of MOFs and COFs for gas storage and separation. Emphasis is placed on structure–function correlations, adsorption mechanisms, and practical challenges such as stability, scalability, and process integration. A comparative discussion of MOFs and COFs is provided, highlighting their respective advantages and limitations. Although significant progress has been achieved, issues related to moisture sensitivity, mechanical robustness, and cost remain to be addressed before large-scale deployment. Overall, porous framework materials represent a versatile platform for next-generation gas storage and separation technologies.

Keywords: Metal–organic frameworks; Covalent organic frameworks; Gas storage; Gas separation; Porous materials

Authors:-Nitin Gajanan Kanse, Matondkar Devendra , Bane Sonali , Matondkar Prajakta

Abstract:-The pressure-swing distillation process is found more significantly economical than the homogeneous extractive distillation process. In pressure-swing distillation process no extra solvent is required for separation of methanol/chloroform mixture. So, now day pressure-swing distillation process is used mostly for separation of methanol/chloroform mixture than the other conventional methods. In this study, a computational study has been performed to separate over 99.5 mol% of choroform from binary azeotropic mixture of methanol and chloroform using a Pressure Swing Distillation process (PSD). Methanol-chloroform binary mixture exhibits an azeotrope at 34 mol % methanol at 34 0C under atmospheric pressure. The PSD process is used to separate azeotropic mixtures using the difference between the relative volatilities and azeotropic compositions by changing the system pressure. Chloroform cannot be completely separated from methanol, ethanol or isopropanol by conventional distillation or rectification because of the minimum boiling azeotrope between chloroform and the alcohols. Chloroform can be readily separated from methanol, ethanol or isopropanol by extractive distillation but it requires extra solvent to achieve the separation.